Hitler 1936-1945: Nemesis (Allen Lane History) Read online

  PENGUIN BOOKS

  HITLER 1936–1945

  ‘Ian Kershaw has long been recognized as the world expert on Adolf Hitler’s role in the Third Reich… this book is not likely to be bettered in the foreseeable future’ Brendan Simms, The Times Higher Education Supplement

  ‘Masterly… As readable and gripping as the first, it explains – the personality of Hitler more convincingly than anything else I’ve read and at the same time sets out in brilliant detail what happened to Germany as a whole during the Second World War’ Miriam Gross, Sunday Telegraph, Books of the Year

  ‘Rich in material, balanced, perceptive, humane and very well written – altogether a magnificent achievement’ David Blackbourn, London Review of Books

  ‘There is not a better and more complete biography of Hitler and his epoch – and it’s hard to imagine that it could soon be superseded’ Alexander Gallus, Rheinischer Merkur

  ‘Monumental… This massive, extensively researched, extraordinarily balanced, and remarkably judicious study is likely to remain the definitive biography for a long time to come’ Omer Bartov, New Republic

  ‘This second volume of Ian Kershaw’s magnum opus is even more fascinating than its predecessor, Hubris’ Antony Beevor, Independent, Books of the Year

  ‘It is a masterly work; comprehensive, balanced, authoritative, and above all readable. If there is one book that explains Hitler’s success in securing and maintaining power, and in consequence the causes of the Second World War, this is it’ Sir Michael Howard, The Times Literary Supplement, International Books of the Year

  ‘A masterpiece which… leaves all previous Hitler biographies in the shade’ Enrico Syring, Das Parlament

  ‘Compared to the many others that came earlier, even the important and illuminating works by Alan Bullock and Joachim Fest, Kershaw’s large-scale study is more probing, more judicious, more authoritative in its rich detail and yet more commanding in its mastery of the horrific narrative’ Milton J. Rosenberg, Chicago Tribune

  ‘Enthralling and terrifying… this is classic narrative history at its best, written with verve and passion’ David Marquand, New Statesman, Books of the Year

  ‘An impressive, detailed, and sobering story’ Gordon A. Craig, New York Review of Books

  ABOUT THE AUTHOR

  Ian Kershaw is Professor of Modern History at the University of Sheffield and one of the world’s leading authorities on Hitler. He was the historical adviser to the two BBC series The Nazis: A Warning from History and War of the Century. He is also the author of ‘The Hitler Myth’: Image and Reality in the Third Reich, Popular Opinion and Political Dissent in the Third Reich, Bavaria 1933–45 and The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation; the editor of Weimar: Why Did German Democracy Fail? and Hitler: A Profile in Power; and co-editor, with Moshe Lewin, of Stalinism and Nazism: Dictatorships in Comparison. Hitler 1889–1936: Hubris was shortlisted for the 1998 Whitbread Biography Award and the first Samuel Johnson Prize for Non-Fiction. Hitler 1936–1945: Nemesis was shortlisted for the 2000 Whitbread Biography Award, and was awarded the Bruno Kreisky Prize in Austria for the Political Book of the Year and the Wolfson Literary Award for History for 2000.

  HITLER

  1936–45: NEMESIS

  Ian Kershaw

  PENGUIN BOOKS

  PENGUIN BOOKS

  Published by the Penguin Group

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  First published by Allen Lane The Penguin Press 2000

  Published in Penguin Books 2001

  13

  Copyright © Ian Kershaw, 2000

  All rights reserved

  The moral right of the author has been asserted

  Except in the United States of America, this book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, re-sold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher’s prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser

  ISBN: 978-0-14-192581-3

  CONTENTS

  List of Illustrations

  List of Maps

  Preface

  Acknowledgements

  Maps

  1936: Hitler Triumphant

  1. Ceaseless Radicalization

  2. The Drive for Expansion

  3. Marks of a Genocidal Mentality

  4. Miscalculation

  5. Going for Broke

  6. Licensing Barbarism

  7. Zenith of Power

  8. Designing a ‘War of Annihilation’

  9. Showdown

  10. Fulfilling the ‘Prophecy’

  11. Last Big Throw of the Dice

  12. Beleaguered

  13. Hoping for Miracles

  14. Luck of the Devil

  15. No Way Out

  16. Into the Abyss

  17. Extinction

  Epilogue

  Glossary of Abbreviations

  Notes

  List of Works Cited

  Index

  LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

  Every effort has been made to contact all copyright holders. The publishers will be glad to make good in future editions any errors or omissions brought to their attention. (Photographic acknowledgements are given in brackets.)

  1. Adolf Hitler, September 1936 (Ullstein Bilderdienst, Berlin)

  2. Hitler discussing plans for Weimar, 1936 (Corbis/Hulton-Deutsch Collection)

  3. The Berlin Olympics, 1936 (Ullstein Bilderdienst, Berlin)

  4. Hitler meets the Duke and Duchess of Windsor, 1937 (Corbis/Hulton-Deutsch Collection)

  5. Werner von Blomberg (Corbis/Hulton-Deutsch Collection)

  6. Werner von Fritsch (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  7. Hitler addresses crowds in the Heldenplatz, Vienna, 1938 (AKG London)

  8. Hitler, Mussolini and Victor-Emmanuel III, 1938 (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  9. Hitler in Florence, 1938 (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  10. ‘The Eternal Jew’ exhibition, Munich, 1937 (AKG London)

  11. ‘Jews in Berlin’ poster, Berlin, 1938 (Corbis/Bettmann)

  12. Synagogue on fire, Berlin, 1938 (Corbis/Hulton-Deutsch Collection)

  13. Jewish Community building, Kassel, 1938 (Ullstein Bilderdienst, Berlin)

  14. Looted Jewish shop, Berlin, 1938 (AKG London)

  15. Joseph Goebbels and his family, 1936 (Corbis/Hulton-Deutsch Collection)

  16. Goebbels broadcasting to the people, 1939 (Hulton Getty)

  17. Eva Braun, c.1938 (Hulton Getty)

  18. Wilhelm Keitel greets Neville Chamberlain (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  19. German troops, Prague, 1939 (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  20. Hitler’s study in the Reich Chancellery (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  21. G�
�ring addresses Hitler in the New Reich Chancellery, 1939 (Bayerisches Hauptstaatsarchiv, Munich)

  22. Hitler presented with a model by Ferdinand Porsche, 1938 (Hulton Getty)

  23. Heinrich Himmler presents Hitler with a painting by Menzel, 1939 (Bundesarchiv, Koblenz)

  24. Hitler with Winifred Wagner, Bayreuth, 1939 (Bayerisches Hauptstaatsarchiv, Munich)

  25. Molotov signs the Non-Aggression Pact between Soviet Union and Germany, 1939 (Corbis)

  26. Hitler in Poland with his Wehrmacht adjutants (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  27. Hitler reviewing troops in Warsaw, 1939 (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  28. Hitler addresses the Party’s ‘Old Guard’ at the Bürgerbräukeller, Munich, 1939 (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  29. Arthur Greiser (Bundesarchiv, Koblenz)

  30. Albert Forster (Süddeutscher Verlag, Munich)

  31. Hitler reacting to news of France’s request for an armistice, 1940 (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  32. Hitler visiting the Maginot Line in Alsace, 1940 (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  33. Hitler in Freudenstadt, 1940 (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  34. Crowds in the Wilhelmplatz, Berlin, 1940 (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  35. Hitler bids farewell to Franco, Hendaye, 1940 (Ullstein Bilderdienst, Berlin)

  36. Hitler meets Marshall Petain, 1940 (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  37. Ribbentrop talking to Molotov, Berlin, 1940 (Bildarchiv Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin)

  38. Hitler meets Matsuoka of Japan, 1941 (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  39. Hitler talks to Alfred Jodl, 1941 (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  40. Hitler and Keitel, en route to Angerburg, 1941 (Ullstein Bilderdienst, Berlin/Walter Frentz)

  41. ‘Europe’s Victory is Your Prosperity’, anti-Bolshevik poster (Imperial War Museum, London)

  42. Walther von Brauchitsch and Franz Halder (AKG London)

  43. Keitel with Hitler at the Wolf’s Lair (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  44. Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich (Süddeutscher Verlag, Munich)

  45. Nazi propaganda poster featuring Hitler’s ‘prophecy’ of 30 January 1939 (The Wiener Library, London)

  46. Hitler salutes the coffin of Heydrich, 1942 (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  47. Hitler comforts Heydrich’s sons (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  48. Hitler addresses 12,000 officers at the Sportpalast, Berlin, 1942 (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  49. The crowd reacting (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  50. Fedor von Bock (Ullstein Bilderdienst, Berlin/Walter Frentz)

  51. Erich von Manstein (Ullstein Bilderdienst, Berlin/Walter Frentz)

  52. Hitler speaks at ‘Heroes’ Memorial Day’ at the Arsenal on Unter den Linden, Berlin, 1942 (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  53. Motorized troops pass a burning Russian village on the Eastern Front, 1942 (Hulton Getty)

  54. Hitler greets Dr Ante Pavelic, 1943 (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  55. Hitler with Marshal Antonescu, 1942 (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  56. Hitler greets King Boris III, 1942 (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  57. Hitler greets Monsignor Dr Josef Tiso, 1943 (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  58. Hitler greets Marshal Mannerheim, 1942 (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  59. Admiral Horthy speaks with Ribbentrop, Keitel and Martin Bormann (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  60. A ‘Do 24’ seaplane, Norway (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  61. Train-mounted cannon, Leningrad (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  62. German tanks, Cyrenaica, Libya (Hulton Getty)

  63. Hunting partisans, Bosnia (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  64. Exhausted German soldier, the Eastern Front (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  65. Hitler reviewing the Wehrmacht parade, Berlin, 1943 (Ullstein Bilderdienst, Berlin/Walter Frentz)

  66. The Party’s ‘Old Guard’ salute Hitler, Munich, 1943 (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  67. Martin Bormann (Hulton Getty)

  68. Hitler and Goebbels on the Obsersalzberg, 1943 (Ullstein Bilderdienst, Berlin/Walter Frentz)

  69. German soldiers pushing vehicle through mud, the Eastern Front (Corbis)

  70. Armoured vehicles lodged in snow, the Eastern Front (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  71. Waffen-SS troops, the Eastern Front (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  72. French Jews being deported, 1942 (Bildarchiv Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin)

  73. Polish Jews dig their own grave, 1942 (Bildarchiv Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin)

  74. Incinerators at Majdanek, 1944 (Ullstein Bilderdienst, Berlin)

  75. Hitler and Himmler walking on the Obersalzberg, 1944 (Ullstein Bilderdienst, Berlin/Walter Frentz)

  76. The ‘White Rose’, 1942 (Gedenkstätte Deutscher Widerstand, Berlin)

  77. Heinz Guderian (Hulton Getty)

  78. Ludwig Beck (AKG London)

  79. Claus Graf Schenk von Stauffenberg (AKG London)

  80. Henning von Tresckow (Süddeutscher Verlag, Munich)

  81. Hitler just after the assassination attempt, 1944 (Süddeutscher Verlag, Munich)

  82. Hitler’s trousers (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  83. Last meeting of Hitler and Mussolini, 1944 (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  84. Karl Dönitz professes the loyalty of the Navy, 1944 (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  85. An ageing Hitler at the Berghof, 1944 (Ullstein Bilderdienst, Berlin/Walter Frentz)

  86. V1 flying-bomb (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  87. V2 rocket (Corbis/Hulton-Deutsch Collection)

  88. Messerschmidt Me 262 (HultonGetty)

  89. The ‘Volkssturm’, 1944 (Hulton Getty)

  90. The last ‘Heroes’ Memorial Day’, Berlin, 1945 (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  91. Women and children fleeing Danzig, 1945 (AKG London)

  92. Hitler views a model of Linz (National Archives and Records Administration, Washington)

  93. Hitler in the ruins of the Reich Chancellery, 1945 (Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte, Stuttgart)

  LIST OF MAPS

  1. The legacy of the First World War

  2. Poland under Nazi occupation

  3. The Western offensive, 1940: the Sichelschnitt attack

  4. The German Reich of 1942: the Nazi Party Gaue

  5. Nazi occupied Europe

  6. Limits of the German occupation of the USSR

  7. The Western and Eastern fronts, 1944“5

  8. The Soviet drive to Berlin

  PREFACE

  The first part of this study, Hitler, 1889–1936: Hubris, tried to show how the people of a highly cultured, economically advanced, modern state could allow into power and entrust their fate to a political outsider with few, if any, special talents beyond undoubted skills as a demagogue and propagandist.

  By the time his Chancellorship was devised through the intrigues of influential individuals close to Reich President von Hindenburg, Hitler had been able in free elections to garner the votes of no more than a good third of the German electorate. Another third – on the Left – stood implacably opposed, though internally in disarray. The remainder were often sceptical, expectant, hesitant, and uncertain. By the end of the first volume we had traced the consolidation of Hitler’s power to the point where it had become well-nigh absolute. Internal opposition had been crushed. The doubters had been largely won over by the scale of an internal rebuilding and external reassertion of strength which, almost beyond imagination, had restored much of the lost
national pride and sense of humiliation left behind after the First World War. Authoritarianism was seen by most as a blessing; repression of those politically out of step, disliked ethnic minorities, or social misfits approved of as a small price for what appeared to be a national rebirth. While the adulation of Hitler among the masses had grown ever stronger, and opposition had been crushed and rendered inconsequential, powerful forces in the army, the landed aristocracy, industry, and high ranks of the civil service had thrown their weight behind the regime. Whatever its negative aspects, it was seen to offer them much in advancing their own interests.